University of Virginia Health System

Cancer Glossary

If it's got to do with your health, it's usually got some big complicated word that describes it. And since your doctor is very comfortable with these words and knows what they mean, sometimes he/she doesn't think about the fact that YOU might not know what they mean....

cancer / n. a general term for a large group of diseases, all characterized by uncontrolled growth and spread of abnormal cells

Cancer isn't any different. Lots of words to describe the disease, the treatments, the process, the side effects, everything. So here's some help in case finding a dictionary isn't always the easiest thing. Be sure to come back and check out new changes. Words in the glossary will be linked up to pages throughout our site.

If you are in need of a prostate-specific glossary, below is a link to a site with over 500 words, acronyms, synonyms, abbreviations and slang terms. It may be the largest prostate cancer-specific, interactive glossary of its kind in the world. Prostate Cancer Glossary

A

acute / Occurring suddenly or over a short period of time

adenocarcinoma / A form of cancer that involves the cells lining the walls of many different organs in the body

adenopathy / Large or swollen lymph glands.

adjunctive therapy / Another treatment used together with the primary treatment. Its purpose is to assist the primary treatment.

adjuvant treatment / Treatment that is added to increase the effectiveness of a primary therapy. In cancer, adjuvant treatment usually refers to chemotherapy or radiotherapy administered after surgery to increase the likelihood of cure.

adverse effect / An unwanted side effect of treatment.

aggressive / a quickly growing cancer

ALL / Acute lymphoblastic leukemia. A quickly progressing disease in which too many immature white blood cells called lymphoblasts are found in the blood and bone marrow. Also called acute lymphocytic leukemia.

allogeneic / Taken from different individuals of the same species

allogeneic bone marrow transplantation / A procedure in which a person receives stem cells, the cells from which all blood cells develop, from a compatible, though not genetically identical, donor.

alopecia / Hair loss as a result of chemotherapy or radiation therapy administered to the head. Hair loss from chemotherapy is temporary. Hair loss from radiation is usually permanent

AML / Acute myelogenous leukemia. A quickly progressing disease in which too many immature blood-forming cells are found in the blood and bone marrow. Also called acute myeloid leukemia or acute nonlymphocytic leukemia.

anaplastic / A term used to describe cancer cells that divide rapidly and bear little or no resemblance to normal cells.

androgen / A male sex hormone. Androgens may be used in patients with breast cancer to treat recurrence of the disease

anemia / A condition in which the number of red blood cells is below normal.

antibiotic / A substance derived from a mold or bacteria that can be used to treat diseases. penicillin is the most familiar type used to treat infection. Certain special antibiotics are effective drugs in cancer chemotherapy.

antibody / A protein in the blood that fights against an invading foreign agent (antigen). Each antibody works against a particular antigen.

antiemetic / A medicine that prevents or relieves nausea and vomiting, used during and sometimes after chemotherapy

antigen / A foreign agent that stimulates the formation of antibodies in the body

antimetabilites / Anticancer drugs that interfere with the processes of DNA production, and thus prevent cell division.

antioxidant / A substance that prevents damage caused by free radicals. Free radicals are highly reactive chemicals that often contain oxygen. They are produced when molecules are split to give products that have unpaired electrons. This process is called oxidation.

aspiration / Removal of fluid from a lump, often a cyst, with a needle and a syringe.

asymptomatic / Without obvious signs or symptoms of disease. Cancer may cause symptoms or warning signs, but, especially in its early stages, cancer may develop and grow without producing symptoms. Cancer detection tests attempt to discover it an an early, asymptomatic stage when the chances for cure are highest (see screening )

atypical / Not usual; abnormal. For example, cancer is the result of atypical cell division.

axilla / The armpit. Lymph glands in the armpit are called the axillary nodes. Certain cancers, such as breast cancer, spread to the axillary nodes. Axillary lymph nodes are usually removed by surgery to determine if breast cancer is present and if treatment with chemotherapy is necessary

axillary dissection / Surgical removal of lymph nodes from the armpit. A pathologist then looks at the tissue to determine if the breast cancer has spread beyond the breast. Talk to your doctor about the number of nodes removed.

B

barium enema / Use of barium sulfate introduced into the intestinal tract by an enema to allow x-ray exam of the large bowel.

basal cell carcinoma / A common form of skin cancer. Basal cell carcinoma grows slowly and seldom spreads to other areas of the body. It is easily detected and is cured when treated promptly.

benign tumor / An abnormal growth that is not cancer and does not spread to other areas of the body.

bilateral / Pertaining to both sides of the body. For example, bilateral breast cancer.

biological response modifiers / A new class of compounds produced in the body, such as interferon, that fight cancer by stimulating the body's immune system.

biological therapy / Use of biologicals (substances produced by our own cells) or biological response modifiers (substances that affect the patient's defense systems) in the treatment of cancer.

biopsy / The surgical removal of a small piece of tissue for microscopic examination to determine if cancer cells are present. Biopsy is the most important procedure in diagnosing cancer.

blood count / Examination of a blood specimen in which the number of white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets are determined. For example, in patients with leukemia, the blood count may show an abnormally high number of white blood cells.

blood transfusion / The administration of blood or blood products into a blood vessel.

bone marrow / The soft, fatty substance filling the cavities of bones. Blood cells are manufactured in bone marrow. The bone marrow is sampled in leukemia, lymphoma, multiple myeloma, and other cancers affecting blood cells to determine the diagnosis and response to treatment.

bone marrow biopsy and aspiration / A procedure in which a needle is inserted into the cavity of a bone, usually the hip or breast bone, to remove a small amount of bone marrow for microscopic examination.

bone metastases / Cancer that has spread from the original (primary) tumor to the bone.

bone scan / A technique to create images of bones on a computer screen or on film. A small amount of radioactive material is injected into a blood vessel and travels through the bloodstream; it collects in the bones and is detected by a scanner.

bowel / The long tube-shaped organ in the abdomen that completes the process of digestion. There is both a small and a large bowel. Also called the intestine.

brachytherapy / A procedure in which radioactive material sealed in needles, seeds, wires, or catheters is placed directly into or near a tumor. Also called internal radiation, implant radiation, or interstitial radiation therapy.

brain scan / A technique in which radioactive dye is injected into a vein, so that images of the brain can be recorded. Brain scans may be used to detect cancers starting in brain tissue or from other areas of the body.

breast reconstruction / Surgery to rebuild a breast's shape after a mastectomy.

breast self-exam (BSE) / A simple procedure to examine breasts thoroughly; recommended once a month for all women to do themselves between regular physician checkups.

breast-conserving surgery / An operation to remove the breast cancer but not the breast itself. Types of breast-conserving surgery include lumpectomy (removal of the lump), quadrantectomy (removal of one quarter of the breast), and segmental mastectomy (removal of the cancer as well as some of the breast tissue around the tumor and the lining over the chest muscles below the tumor).

C

cancer / A general term for a large group of diseases (more than 100), all characterized by uncontrolled growth and spread of abnormal cells. Cancer cells are abnormal and eventually form tumors that invade and destroy surrounding tissue; they may even spread via the lymph system or bloodstream to distant areas of the body. (see metastasis and malignant tumor)

cancer cell / A cell that divides and reproduces uncontrollably.

cancer-related checkup / Periodic health examination for cancer in asymptomatic persons (without obvious signs or symptoms) to detect the disease at an early, curable stage.

carcinogen / Any substance that initiates or promotes the development of cancer. For example, asbestos is a proven carcinogen.

carcinoma / A form of cancer that develops in tissues covering or lining organs of the body, such as the skin, the uterus, the lung, or the breast.

carcinoma in situ / An early stage in development, when the cancer is still confined to one layer of tissue. In situ carcinomas are highly curable.

CCOP (Community Clinical Oncology Program) / This program links community physicians with NCI clinical research programs, so that more cancer patients can participate in clinical trials in their own communities.

cell / The basic structural unit of life. All living matter is composed of cells.

cervix / Any "necklike" structure; usually refers to the neck of the uterus where cancer may occur.

chemoprevention / In cancer, this term is used to describe attempts at prevention of disease by drugs, chemicals, vitamins, and/or minerals. The concept is under study but is not yet ready for wide application.

chemotherapy / Treatment of disease, such as cancer by drugs.

clinical trial / The scientific evaluation of the means to prevent, detect, diagnose or treat disease in human beings. Clinical trials are conducted after experiments in animals have shown evidence of potential effectiveness and preliminary studies in humans suggest usefulness.

colon / The part of the large intestine that extends from the end of the small intestine to the rectum.

colonoscopy / A technique used to visually examine the entire colon by means of a lighted, flexible instrument, called a fiberoptic colonoscope. This procedure may also obtain biopsy specimens of suspicious tissue.

colostomy / A surgical procedure that creates an artificial opening in the abdominal wall for elimination of body wastes from the colon. It can be either temporary or permanent. Most colon cancers do not require colostomies if they are found early and treated promptly.

combination chemotherapy / Treatment consisting of the use of two or more chemicals to achieve more effective results.

combination therapy (ther'a-pee) / The use of two or more modes of treatment- surgery, radiotherapy, chemotherapy, immunotherapy-in combination, alternately or together, to achieve optimum results against cancer.

combined modality therapy / Two or more types of treatment - surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or immunotherapy - used alternatively or together for maximum effectiveness. For example, surgery for cancer is often followed by chemotherapy to destroy any random cancer cells that may have spread from the original site.

computerized tomography scans / Commonly called CT scans, these specialized x-ray studies can find cancer or metastases. CT scans have revolutionized the diagnosis of cancer and other diseases.

cone biopsy / Surgery to remove a cone-shaped piece of tissue from the cervix and cervical canal. Cone biopsy may be used to diagnose or treat a cervical condition. Also called conization.

consolidation therapy / Chemotherapy treatments given after induction chemotherapy to further reduce the number of cancer cells.

control group / In clinical studies this is a group of patients which receives standard treatment, a treatment or intervention currently being used and considered to be of proved effectiveness on the basis of past studies. Results in patients receiving newly developed treatments may then be compared to the control group. In cases where no standard treatment yet exists for a particular condition, the control group would receive no treatment. No patient is placed in a control group without treatment if there is any beneficial treatment known for that patient.

COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disease) / COPD is a disease of the lungs, caused by a blocking of the airways in the lungs. COPD refers to a number of chronic lung disorders that obstruct the airways. Asthma is is not usually considered a form of COPD because pure asthma symptoms can be reversed. COPD is permanent. The most common form of COPD is a combination of chronic bronchitis and emphysema

core biopsy / Removal (with a large needle) of a piece of a lump. The piece is sent to the lab to see if the lump is benign or malignant

cyst / An abnormal saclike structure that contains liquid or semisolid material; may be benign or malignant. Lumps in the breast are often found to be harmless cysts and not cancer.

cytology / Study of cells under a microscope. Cells that have been sloughed off or scraped off organs, such as the uterus, lungs, bladder or stomach, are microscopically examined for signs of cancer. Also called exfoliative cytology. (see Pap test)

cytotoxic / Drugs that can kill cancer cells - usually refers to drugs used in chemotherapy treatments

D

detection / The discovery of an abnormality in an asymptomatic or symptomatic person. "Early Detection" is the discovery of an abnormality by health professionals through a special effort designed to screen for asymptomatic disease, or by people themselves who have been made alert to the existence of signs or symptoms.

diagnosis / The process of identifying a disease by its characteristic signs, symptoms, and laboratory findings. In patients with cancer, the earlier the diagnosis is made, the better the chance for cure.

diagnostic procedure / A method used to identify a disease.

diagnostic trial / A research study that evaluates methods of detecting disease.

differentiated / Refers to how similar a normal cell is to a cancer cell; defines what degree of change has occurred. Cancer cells that are well differentiated are close to the original cell and are usually less aggressive. Poorly differentiated cells have changed more and are more aggressive.

digital rectal exam / A procedure in which the physician inserts a finger into the rectum to examine this area (as well as the prostate gland in men) for signs of cancer.

DNA / Deoxyribonucleic acid. One of two nucleic acids - the other is RNA (ribonucleic acid) - found in the nucleus of all cells. DNA contains genetic information on cell growth, division and function.

double-blind / Characteristic of a controlled experiment in which neither the patient nor the attending physician knows whether the patient is getting one or another drug or dose. In single-blind studies, patients do not know which of several treatments they are receiving, thus preventing personal bias from influencing their reactions and study results. In either case, the treatment can be quickly identified, if necessary, by a special code.

ductal carcinoma in situ / A cancer inside the ducts of breast that has not grown through the wall of the duct into the surrounding tissues. Sometimes referred to as a precancer. Good prognosis is involved with in situ cancers.

E

edema / Excess fluid in the body or a swelling in parts of the body

endometrium / The inner mucous membrane that forms the uterine wall. Endometrial cancer generally affects women between 50 and 64 years old.

endoscopy / Any procedure that uses a hollow tubelike instrument to visualize and biopsy otherwise inaccessible areas of the body, such as the esophagus, stomach, colon, bladder, or lung.

enterostomal therapist / A health professional trained to assist patients in the proper care of stomas - openings in the abdominal wall created to remove wastes.

epidemiology / Study of disease incidence and distribution in populations, as well as the relationship between environment and disease. Cancer epidemiology studies how physical surroundings, occupational hazards and personal habits (smoking, diet, and lifestyle) may contribute to the development of cancer.

erythroplasia / Red lesions, grainy or smooth, on the mucous membranes of the mouth, which may indicate an early cancer.

esophageal speech / An acquired technique of speaking used by people who have had their larynx (voice box) removed. Air is expelled from the esophagus, thus vibrating the walls of the pharynx and esophagus to prduce sound.

estrogen / A female hormone secreted by the ovaries, which is essential for menstruation, reproduction, and the development of secondary sex characteristics, such as breasts. Some patients with breast cancer are given estrogen to inhibit tumor growth.

etiology / The study of the causes of disease. In cancer, there are probably multiple etiologies.

excisional biopsy / Surgical removal of a lump or suspicious tissue by cutting the skin and removing the tissue

F

familial cancer / Cancer that occurs in a family more often than by chance

fibroadenoma / A noncancerous, solid tumor most commonly found in younger women

five-year-survival / A term commonly used as the statistical basis for successful treatment. A patient with cancer is generally considered cured after five or more years without recurrence of disease.

frozen section / A technique in which tissue is removed by biopsy, then frozen, cut into thin slices, stained and examined under a microscope. A pathologist can rapidly examine a frozen section for immediate diagnosis. This procedure is often done during surgery to help the physician decide the most appropriate course of action.

G

genes / Located in the nucleus of the cell, genes contain heredity information that is transferred from cell to cell. A process called genetic engineering may be used eventually to modify heredity and correct genetic defects.

genetic / Refers to the heredity "code" that is found in the cells that determines certain characteristics

H

hematoma / A collection of blood that can form in a wound after surgery, an aspiration or from an injury.

high risk / When the chance of developing cancer is greater than that normally seen in the general population. Patients may be at high risk from many factors, including heredity (e.g., a family history of breast cancer), personal habits (e.g., smoking) or the environment (e.g., overexposure to sunlight). (See risk factor )

Hodgkin's disease / A form of cancer that affects the lymph system. Hodgkin's disease generally occurs in adults, and can now be successfully treated in the majority of patients.

hormone / Secreted by various organs in the body, hormones help regulate growth, metabolism, and reproduction. Some hormones are used as treatment following surgery for breast, ovarian, and prostate cancers.

hospice / A concept of psychosocial and supportive care to meet the special needs of patients and their families during the terminal stages of illness. The care is provided in outpatient, home and inpatient settings.

hyperplasia / an abnormal, excessive growth of cells that is benign

hysterectomy / The surgical removal of the uterus. May be combined with the removal of the ovaries (oophorectomy).

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immunology / Study of the body's mechanisms of resistance against disease or invasion by foreign substances.

immunosuppressed / Condition of having a lowered resistance to disease. May be a temporary result of lowered white blood cells from chemotherapy administration. An immunosuppressed individual is one who is more susceptible to disease.

immune system / A complex network of organs, cells, and specialized substances distributed throughout the body and defending it from foreign invaders that cause infection or disease.

immunotherapy / A treatment that stimulates the body's own defense mechanisms to combat disease, such as cancer.

in situ / In place; localized and confined to one area. A very early stage of cancer.

incidence / The extent to which disease occurs in the population. Cancer incidence is the estimated number of new cases of cancer diagnosed each year.

informed consent / The process in which a patient learns about and understands the purpose and aspects of a clinical trial and then agrees to participate. Of course, a patient may decline to participate. This process includes a document defining how much a patient must know about the potential benefits and risks of therapy before being able to agree to undergo it knowledgeably. (Informed consent is required in federally conducted, funded, or regulated studies as well as by many state laws.) If a patient signs an informed consent form and enters a trial, he or she is still free to leave the trial at any time, and can receive other available medical care.

interferon / A natural body protein produced by normal cells that was originally discovered as an antiviral agent, but has now been found to have some anticancer activity as well. Interferon may be artificially produced in large quantities using the technique of recombinant DNA.

investigational new drug / A drug allowed by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to be used in clinical trials but not approved by the FDA for commercial marketing.

investigator / The experienced clinical researcher who prepares a protocol or treatment plan and implements it with patients.

involuntary smoking / When nonsmokers breathe cigarette smoke from other people, they are involuntarily smoking. The risk of lung cancer in nonsmokers is now being studied. Also called passive smoking, sidestream smoking, and second-hand smoking.

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L

laryngectomy / The surgical removal of the larynx, or voice box, resulting in the loss of normal speech. A laryngectomee is someone who has undergone this operation. (See esophageal speech)

lesion / a well-defined area of the body where tissue has changed in such a way that is characteristic of a disease.

leukemia / Cancer of the blood-forming tissues (bone marrow, lymph nodes, spleen). Leukemia is characterized by the overproduction of abnormal, immature white blood cells.

leukoplakia / White plaques on the mucous membranes of the mouth and gums; may be precancerous.

liver scan / Injection of a small dose of radioactive substance into the bloodstream to help visualize the liver during x-ray.

localized cancer / A cancer still confined to its site of origin.

lymph / A clear fluid circulating throughout the body (in the lymphatic system) that contains white blood cells and antibodies.

lymphedema / A swelling in the arm caused by excess fluid that collects after the lymph nodes have been removed by surgery or affected by radiation treatments

lymph gland / Also called lymph node. These glands produce lymph. They normally act as filters of impurities in the bodies.

M

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) / A technique using magnetic fields to produce images of the body. Useful in disease diagnosis, including cancer.

malignant tumor / A mass of cancer cells. A malignant tumor may invade surrounding tissues or spread to distant areas of the body. (see metastasis)

mammogram / The image produced by a low-dose x-ray of the breast.

mammography / A screening and diagnostic technique that uses low-dose x-rays to find tumors in the breast. Mammography can reveal a tumor too small to be felt even by the most experienced physician. The procedure may be used as a detection test in all women of the appropriate age group who do not have symptoms. All suspicious breast lumps must be biopsied to determine whether or not thery are cancer.

melanoma / A type of skin cancer. While most skin cancers rarely spread to other areas of the body and are easily treated and cured, melanoma can be more aggressive if not detected early.

metastasis / The spread of cancer cells to distant areas of the body by way of the lymph system or bloodstream. The term, metastasis, refers to these new cancer sites.

metastatic cancer (met-a-stat'ik) / Cancer that has spread from its original site to one or more additional body sites.

mitosis / The process of cell reproduction.

monoclonal antibodies / Antibodies designed to seek out chosen targets on cancer cells. They are under study to deliver chemotherapy and radiotherapy directly to a cancer, thus killing the cancer cell and sparing healthy tissue. Studies are also underway to determine if monoclonal antibodies can be produced to detect and diagnose cancer cells at a very early curable stage.

morbidity / Sickness. The term usually refers to the proportion of people with an illness.

mortality / Mortality rates reflect the number of deaths in a given population.

multimodality therapy (mul'ti-mo-dal'i-tee ther'a-pee) / The combined use of more than one method of treatment, for example, surgery and chemotherapy.

N

necrosis / tissue death

neoplasm / Any new abnormal growth. Neoplasms may be benign or malignant, but the term is generally used to describe a cancer.

nodule / A small, solid mass.

nuclear scan / A procedure in which a weak radioactive substance, called a radioactive tracer, is injected into the bloodstream. The material is taken up by the body and a machine that looks like an x-ray machine moves over the area being tested and takes pictures.

O

oncogene / Genes that when inappropriately activated, contribute to the changing of a normal cell to a cancerous one.

oncologist / A physician who specializes in cancer treatment, after undergoing extensive training and examinations.

oncology / The science dealing with the physical, chemical, and biologic properties and features of cancer, including causes and the disease process.

P

palliative treatment / Therapy that relieves symptoms, such as pain, but does not alter the course of disease. Its primary purpose is to improve the quality of life.

palpation / A procedure using the hands to examine organs, such as the breast or prostate. A palpable mass is one that can be felt.

Pap test / Developed by the late Dr. George Papanicolaou, it is a simple microscopic examination of cells. This test can detect cancer of the cervix at an early, highly curable stage. (see cytology)

pathology / Study of disease through the microscopic examination of body tissues and organs. Any tumor suspected of being cancerous must be diagnosed by pathologic examination.

PDQ / Supported by NCI, PDQ is a computerized database available to physicians nationwide. Geographically matrixed, it offers the latest information on standard treatments and ongoing clinical trials for each type and stage of cancer. The information is easily accessible for physicians via libraries and personal computers.

pelvic examination / A manual internal examination of the female reproductive organs, through the vagina and rectum.

placebo / An inert substance, such as a sugar pill. A placebo may be used in clinical trials to compare the effects of a given treatment against no treatment.

platelet / A substance necessary for blood clotting that is found in blood. Platelet transfusions are used in cancer patients to prevent or control bleeding when the number of platelets has decreased.

polyps / A nodular growth of tissue developing in the lining of a cavity, such as the colon, the nose, or the vocal cords. Polyps may be benign or malignant.

precancerous / Abnormal cellular changes that are potentially capable of becoming cancer. These early lesions are very responsive to treatment and cure. Also called premalignant.

prevalence / The number of patients with a disease in the population at a specific time. For example, the prevalence of esophageal cancer is higher in blacks than whites.

prevention / The reduction of cancer by eliminating or reducing contact with carcinogenic agents. A change in lifestyle such as not smoking, for example, can help prevent lung and many other cancers.

procto / An short word for sigmoidoscopy (preferred term). An examination of the rectum and lower colon with a hollow lighted tube called a sigmoidoscope to detect colorectal polyps and cancer.

prognosis / A prediction of the course of the disease; the future prospects for the patient. For example, breast cancer patients who receive treatment early have a good prognosis.

prostate / A gland located at the base of the bladder in males.

prosthesis / An artificial replacement for a missing part of the body, such as a breast or limb.

protocol (pro'to-kol) / The outline or plan for use of an experimental procedure or experimental treatment.

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radioactive implant / A source of high-dose radiation that is placed directly into and around a cancer to kill the cancer cells.

radiation oncologist / A physician with special training in the use of x-ray energy for the treatment of cancer.

radiation therapy / Treatment with high-energy rays to kill cancer cells.

radiation therapist / A technologist with special training in the operation of radiation therapy equipment who treats cancer patients with radiation.

radiosensitizers (ray'dee-o-sen-si-ty'zers) / Drugs being studied to try to boost the effect of radiation therapy.

radiotherapy / Treatment of cancer with high-energy radiation. Radiation therapy may be used to reduce the size of a cancer before surgery, or to destroy any remaining cancer cells after surgery. Radiotherapy can be helpful in shrinking recurrent cancers to relieve symptoms. It can cure some types of cancer as well.

randomized clinical trials (ran-duh'mized) / A study in which patients with similar traits, such as extent of disease, are chosen or selected by chance to be placed in separate groups that are comparing different treatments. Because irrelevant factors or preferences do not influence the distribution of patients, the treatment groups can be considered comparable and results of the different treatments used in different groups can be compared. (There is no way at the time for researchers to know which of the treatments is best.) See also Clinical Trials. (It is the patient's choice to be in a randomized clinical trial or not.)

rectum / The last five to six inches of the colon leading to the anus.

recurrence (local) / Reappearance of cancer at its original site after a period of remission.

regional involvement / The spread of cancer from its original site to nearby surrounding areas. Regional cancers are confined to one location in the body.

regression (ree-gresh'un) / The state of growing smaller or disappearing; used to describe the shrinkage or disappearance of a cancer.

rehabilitation / Programs that help patients adjust and return to a full productive life. Rehabilitation may involve physical restoration, such as the use of prosthesis, counseling, and emotional support. (see prosthesis)

relapse / The reappearance of cancer after a disease-free period.

remission / Complete or partial disappearance of the signs and symptoms of disease in response to treatment. The period during which a disease is under control. A remission, however, is not necessarily a cure.

risk/benefit ratio / The relation between the risks and benefits of a given treatment or procedure. Institutional Review Boards (IRBs), located where the study is to take place, determine that the risks in a study are reasonable with respect to the potential benefits. It is also up to the patient to decide if it is reasonable for him or her to take part in a study.

risk factor / Anything that increases an individual's chance of getting a disease, such as cancer. For example, the major risk factor for lung cancer is cigarette smoking. The major risk factor for skin cancer is overexposure to the sun.

risk reduction / Those techniques used to reduce the chances of developing cancer. For example, low-fat diets may help reduce the risk of breast cancer.

S

sarcoma / A form of cancer that arises in the supportive tissues, such as bone, cartilage, fat, or muscle.

secondary tumor / A tumor that develops as a result of metastases or spreads beyond the original cancer.

screening / The search for disease, such as cancer, in individuals without known symptoms. Screening may refer to coordinated mass programs in large populations.

side effects / Usually describes after effects or secondary effects of treatment. For example, hair loss may be a side effect of radiation therapy or chemotherapy.

sigmoidoscopy / The visual inspection of the rectum and lower colon by a tubular instrument called a sigmoidoscope passed through the rectum. The instrument may be either a rigid or flexible instrument. (see procto)

single blind (See Double Blind.)

squamous cell carcinoma / A form of skin cancer that usually appears as red, scaly patches or nodules typically on lips, face, tips of ears, but also in other sites such as the cervix and lungs. It can spread to other parts of the body is untreated.

staging / An evaluation of the extent of disease, such as cancer. A classification based on stage at diagnosis helps determine appropriate treatment and prognosis.

standard treatment / A treatment or other intervention currently being used and considered to be of proved effectiveness on the basis of past studies.

stoma / A surgically created opening. For example, a stoma is made in the abdominal wall for elimination of wastes when the colon and/or rectum can no longer perform this function. (see colostomy)

stool blood test / A simple chemical test to detect invisible (occult) blood in the feces. It is used to detect early signs of gastrointestinal conditions, including polyps and cancers of the colon and rectum.

study arm / Patients in clinical trials are assigned to one part or segment of a study - a study arm. One arm receives a different treatment from another.

surgery / A procedure to remove or repair a part of the body or to find out if disease is present.

T

testes (testicles) / The two male sex organs suspended in a pouch, called the scrotum, below the penis.

Testicular Self-Examination (TSE) / A simple manual examination of the testes. Should be performed monthly.

therapeutic (ther'a-pew'tik) / Pertaining to treatment.

tissue / A collection of similar cells. There are four basic types of tissues in the body; epithelial, connective, muscle, and nerve.

tumor / An abnormal tissue swelling or mass; may be either benign or malignant.

U

ultrasound examination / The use of high frequency sound waves to locate a tumor deep inside the body. Also called ultrasonography.

unproven methods of cancer management / Scientifically untested methods of preventing, diagnosing, or treating cancer. The American Cancer Society maintains an extensive reference file on unproven methods of cancer management; information is available on request.

uterus / A female reproductive organ; the womb in which an unborn child develops until birth.

V

vaccine / A substance injected into the body to stimulate resistance to a specific disease.

vagina / A female reproductive organ. Also called the birth canal.

virus / Tiny living organisms that invade cells, alter the cells' chemistry and cause them to produce more viruses. Viruses cause many diseases. In animals, several viruses have been shown to produce cancer. Their role in the development of cancer in humans is now being studied.

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x-ray / radiant energy used to diagnose and treat disease, such as cancer. high doses of x-rays can kill cancer cells.

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