Section 2
Non-M.D. Health Professions
Thomas Pearce
Osteopathic Medicine: Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (D.O.)
Doctors of osteopathic medicine are physicians who comprise 5-10% of physicians in the United States. They are trained in every medical and surgical specialty and do every type of work that M.D.s do. The major differences between osteopathic (D.O.) and allopathic (M.D.) medicine are that about 60% of osteopathic physicians practice primary care medicine (compared to about 20% of allopathic physicians), and that many use osteopathic hospitals exclusively. Osteopathic physicians have been trained largely by D.O.s and Ph.D.s (allopathic physicians are trained largely by M.D.s and Ph.D.s). Distribution of osteopathic physicians is also different: most are concentrated in pockets of osteopathic medicine, including, but certainly not limited to, large areas of Missouri, Texas, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Florida, California, Illinois, Oklahoma, and Kansas.
Students preparing for osteopathic medical school take a typical pre-med curriculum which differs in no way from that of other pre-med students. Osteopathic medical school is a four-year program nearly identical to allopathic medical school, but with more emphasis on primary care. It also includes a training sequence in manipulative therapy, traditionally the hallmark of osteopathic medicine. The U.S. government, including the armed forces, does not distinguish between physicians holding the D.O. or the M.D. degree, or between students training for either degree. Competition is slightly less for places in osteopathic medical schools than in allopathic medical schools. Students usually need a B average (along with other competitive credentials, including good MCAT scores) to gain admission to osteopathic medical schools. Although osteopathic physicians may become licensed to practice any medical or surgical specialty, clearly the emphasis of osteopathic medicine is on primary care. There are 16 osteopathic medical schools in the U.S.
Application to osteopathic medical school is made through the American Association of Colleges of Osteopathic Medicine Application Service (AACOMAS-see Appendix B for the address). The procedure is identical to that used with AMCAS (the application service to allopathic medical schools). The student should apply at the earliest possible date (July 1). Supplemental application materials are mailed by individual osteopathic medical schools to those applicants in whom they are interested. Competitive applicants are interviewed subsequently. An Early Decision Plan (E.D.P.) may be available at some osteopathic medical schools. The MCAT is required.
Dentistry: Doctor of Dental Surgery (D.D.S.) or Doctor of Dental Medicine (D.M.D.)
Students preparing for dental school follow the pre-med academic curriculum, but near the end of the third college year, they take the Dental Admission Test instead of the Medical College Admission Test. Although the DAT and MCAT are very similar, there are two major differences: the DAT contains no test questions on physics, and the DAT has a section on three-dimensional perception (Perceptual Ability Test). A dental school education is four years after college. Upon receipt of the D.D.S. or D.M.D. (a degree equivalent in every way to the D.D.S.), newly-graduated dentists may enter practice immediately or continue specialty work in graduate school. Thus, the second degree, coming after the D.D.S., is a master's degree, in one of the dental specialties: pedodontics, endodontics, periodontics, orthodontics, prosthodontics, or oral surgery. General dentists do not earn the master's degree in any specialty, but specialists must do so. There are 56 dental schools in the U.S.
Application to dental school is made through the American Association of Dental Schools Application Service (AADSAS-see Appendix B for the address). The process is identical to that used with AMCAS (the application service to allopathic medical schools). Applicants should apply at the earliest possible date (which varies from school to school). Almost all the dental schools are AADSAS participants. After individual dental schools have received the application, they mail supplementary application materials to the applicants in whom they are interested. Competitive applicants are interviewed subsequently. No dental school offers an Early Decision Plan. The Dental Admission Test (DAT) is required.
Veterinary Medicine: Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (D.V.M.)
Preparation for veterinary school is markedly different from preparation for medical or dental school in several ways. Although pre-vet students follow a pre-med curriculum in college and are expected to do very well in it, experience with both animals and veterinarians is extremely important. Pre-veterinary students should make every effort to obtain diversified experience as soon as possible (preferably beginning in high school); vacations and free hours should be spent at veterinary facilities, and working for a number of different veterinarians is strongly encouraged.
The D.V.M. degree usually requires four years of study at an accredited veterinary college. There are only 27 veterinary schools in the U.S. Mostly because of this, it is unusual for a student to be accepted at any out-of-state veterinary school. Thus, Virginia residents will in almost every case apply only to the Virginia-Maryland Regional College of Veterinary Medicine, located on the campus of Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in Blacksburg, Virginia. Residents of New York nearly always attend the veterinary school located at Cornell University, North Carolina residents almost always attend the veterinary school at North Carolina State University, and so on.
Many veterinary schools require applicants to complete the Veterinary College Admission Test (VCAT). Other schools may require the Graduate Record Exam Advanced Test in Biology (a test required of applicants for graduate work in biology), or even accept the MCAT. Competitive applicants have a B average, strong test scores, and, optimally, several years of experience with animals and veterinarians. Over the past few years, more women and fewer men have been applying to veterinary school; currently more than half of those applying to veterinary school nationwide are women.
Optometry: Doctor of Optometry (O.D.)
The O.D. degree requires four years after college but no internship or post-graduate work beyond that. Newly-graduated optometrists are often employed by other optometrists or by ophthalmologist. Their duties include routine vision analysis and prescription of corrective lenses. They are trained to recognize ocular pathology and, when indicated, refer patients to an ophthalmologist (a physician, usually an M.D., with five years of post-doctoral residency). Competitive applicants for optometry school usually have a B average and good scores on the OAT (Optometry Admission Test). Students preparing for optometry have virtually the same academic prerequisites as pre-meds and take the usual pre-medical curriculum. They should observe one or two optometrists through an externship program.
There is no standardized application service for schools of optometry. There are 17 schools and colleges of optometry in the United States and Puerto Rico. Students should apply at the earliest possible date, which varies. After individual schools have received an application, they mail supplementary application materials to the applicants in whom they are interested. Competitive applicants are interviewed subsequently. An Early Decision Plan may be available at some schools of optometry. The Optometry Admission Test (OAT) is required.
Podiatry: Doctor of Podiatric Medicine (D.P.M.)
The D.P.M. degree requires four years of post-college podiatric education and clinical training. Following this, D.P.M.s enter one to three years of postdoctoral training at an accredited hospital or a 12-month postdoctoral training program in an office-based setting. Podiatry is a surgical specialty and involves very little strictly medical practice. Procedures of the podiatrist range from clipping toenails to major operations on the foot and ankle, where the podiatrist is akin to the orthopedic surgeon in those areas. Although there are only seven schools of podiatric medicine in the U.S., there is little competition for admission into these schools. Competitive applicants usually have a B average. Students preparing for podiatry school take the same curriculum as pre-medical students.
Application to a college of podiatric medicine is made through the American Association of Colleges of Podiatric Medicine Application Service (AACPMAS-see Appendix B for the address). The procedure is identical to that used with AMCAS (the application service for allopathic medical schools). Applicants should apply at the earliest possible date which may vary from school to school. After individual podiatric schools have received the AACPMAS application, they mail supplementary application materials to applicants in whom they are interested. Competitive applicants are interviewed subsequently. An Early Decision Plan may be available at some podiatry schools. The MCAT is required.
Physical Therapy: Registered Physical Therapist (R.P.T.), Master of Physical Therapy (M.S.), Doctor of Physical Therapy (Ph.D.)
There are several ways to become a practicing physical therapist. All physical therapists have a bachelor's degree, most in physical therapy, and some have a master's degree or a doctorate. There are two ways for college graduates to earn a physical therapy degree. One is to earn the bachelor's degree and then go to physical therapy school to earn a second bachelor's degree, which takes two years. The other is to leave after graduation and go straight to one of about 20 schools which accept students with a bachelor's degree in a field other than physical therapy in order to earn a master's degree in physical therapy. There are 138 accredited physical therapist education programs in the U.S.
Students preparing for a career in physical therapy should take a typical pre-medical curriculum. Competitive applicants usually have a B average when applying for a master's degree or a doctorate. Physical therapists are usually employed by hospitals, rehabilitation facilities, nursing homes, and other extended care facilities, as well as by camps, private individuals in the home, and physicians. Those holding doctorates generally obtain teaching, research, or administrative positions.
There is no standardized application service for schools of physical therapy; each school has its own application process. The schedule is different from school to school. In general, application is made during the fourth undergraduate year. The Graduate Record Examination (GRE) or the Miller Analogy Test (MAT) is usually required.
Health Administration: Master of Health Administration, or Master of Hospital Administration (M.H.A.)
This degree doesn't require a great deal of science and is in fact more of a business degree. There are 45 programs in the United States which offer the degree; the Graduate Record Exam (GRE) or Graduate Management Admission Test (GMAT) is required for admission. The undergraduate major is not important, as the schools take graduates from many different disciplines. A background in accounting, computers, and general business is desirable, and there are a few specific prerequisites of a pre-business nature. Competitive candidates have a B average. Degree programs are usually two years, although some are three years. After graduation, M.H.A.s generally work first in hospitals as assistant administrators. Following this experience, they may become head administrators at hospitals or health organizations.
There is no centralized application service. Individual schools differ in their application procedures. In general, students apply during the fourth undergraduate year. Some schools may require an entrance exam. The most useful reference is the Directory of Programs (also known as Health Services Administration Education), published biannually by the Association of University Programs in Health Administration (see Appendix B for the address).
Pharmacy: Pharmacist (B.S. in Pharmacy, M.S. in Pharmacy, Pharm.D.)
There are two ways to earn a degree in pharmacy: earn a second bachelor's degree in pharmacy, or go directly to a master's degree in pharmacy. Either way, the student preparing for a career in pharmacy should have a strong science background and a B average. The pharmacist holds an applied, practical degree and dispenses drugs on physicians' orders. The Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm.D.) is a clinical degree. Professionals with this degree work with physicians, as consultants, recommending drugs and studying their effects.
Both of these degrees are distinguished from the Ph.D. in pharmacology, a basic medical science degree, which requires a minimum of four years of graduate school and a research dissertation. The Graduate Record Exam (GRE) in chemistry is required for admission to this program. Pharmacologists are usually on the faculties of medical schools, teaching and conducting independent research. Many are employed by drug companies.
There is no centralized application service to schools of pharmacy. Schedules are highly variable from school to school. The Pharmacy College Admission Test (PCAT) is required. The most useful reference is Pharmacy School Admission Requirements, published by the American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy (see Appendix B for the address). There are 79 schools and colleges of pharmacy in the United States and Puerto Rico.
Physician Assistant: Physician Assistant (P.A.)
There are about 60 programs offering the P.A. in the United States. It is available to both college graduates and non-college graduates. The latter join the military after high school and train to be a "medic" (Air Force and Army) or "hospital corpsman" (Navy). Following military service, they go through a "MEDEX" program and earn a degree and subsequent licensure as a P.A.
College graduates enter a "university" program. This program stresses emergency medical training, giving physicals, taking histories, and providing prompt, first-contact medical care. All physician assistants are required by law to work under supervision of a physician; their degree of independence depends on the state in which they are licensed. P.A.s are most needed in underserved rural areas and inner-city areas where physicians are scarce.
There is no centralized application service to this graduate program. Schedules vary from school to school. A very useful reference is the Directory of Programs (also known as the National Health Practitioner Program Profile), published by the Association of Physician Assistant Programs (see Appendix B for the address).
Public Health Careers: Master of Public Health (M.P.H.), Doctor of Public Health (Dr.P.H.)
Public health is concerned with the prevention and control of disease, and with improving general health conditions through public and private efforts. The goal is to improve the quality of life for all people by addressing medical, social, environmental, cultural, administrative, and political issues that influence the health of the populace. There are nine areas of specialty in public health: biostatistics, environmental health, epidemiology, health administration, health education, maternal and child health, parasitology, nutrition, and public health nursing.
The master's degree is designed to prepare its graduates for careers as health supervisors, researchers, consultants, and managers in health agencies, local, state, federal, and international governmental agencies, and other such organizations and institutions. The doctoral degree prepares graduates for careers in teaching, research, and policy-making positions.
There are 27 accredited schools of public health in the United States. Competitive applicants to master's degree programs have any college major, some academic exposure to science and to business subjects, and about a B average. The general Graduate Record Examination (GRE) or the Graduate Management Admission Test (GMAT) is usually required. There is no centralized application service for these programs.